The twelve tribes of Israel

Short answer

The twelve tribes of Israel descend from the twelve sons of Jacob, whom God renamed Israel: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Joseph and Benjamin. Joseph's sons Ephraim and Manasseh each became a tribe, while Levi served as the priestly tribe without its own territory. Judah became the royal tribe from which the Messiah came.

The people of Israel took their name from Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, whom God renamed Israel. His twelve sons became the fathers of twelve tribes, and the whole Old Testament story of Israel is the story of these tribes: their journey out of Egypt, their share in the promised land, their kings and their exile.

Twelve sons from four mothers

Jacob’s sons were born to two wives, Leah and Rachel, and to their two servants, Bilhah and Zilpah. Genesis lists them by their mothers.

And it came to pass, when Israel dwelt in that land, that Reuben went and lay with Bilhah his father's concubine: and Israel heard it. Now the sons of Jacob were twelve: The sons of Leah; Reuben, Jacob's firstborn, and Simeon, and Levi, and Judah, and Issachar, and Zebulun: The sons of Rachel; Joseph, and Benjamin: And the sons of Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid; Dan, and Naphtali: And the sons of Zilpah, Leah's handmaid; Gad, and Asher: these are the sons of Jacob, which were born to him in Padan-aram.
Gen 35:22–26 · King James Version (1769)

Leah: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar and Zebulun.
Rachel: Joseph and Benjamin.
Bilhah, Rachel’s servant: Dan and Naphtali.
Zilpah, Leah’s servant: Gad and Asher.

John MacArthur points out that the list is introduced by one sad note: Reuben’s sin with his father’s concubine, which stained his right to be called the firstborn. The list comes right after the birth of Benjamin, the only son born in Canaan, and with him the number twelve was complete.

Jacob’s blessing on each tribe

Before he died in Egypt, Jacob gathered his sons and spoke over each of them (Genesis 49:1–28).

And Jacob called unto his sons, and said, Gather yourselves together, that I may tell you that which shall befall you in the last days. Gather yourselves together, and hear, ye sons of Jacob; and hearken unto Israel your father.
Gen 49:1–2 · King James Version (1769)

Commentators agree that Jacob was speaking less about his sons as individuals than about the tribes that would come from them. Matthew Henry calls these words the language of the Holy Spirit about the future of each tribe. MacArthur adds that each prophecy grew out of the son’s character at the time.

The first three sons hear hard words. The New Geneva Study Bible explains that a firstborn normally received three privileges: the double inheritance, the priesthood and the rule. Reuben lost them all because of his sin. The double portion went to Joseph, the priesthood to Levi and the rule to Judah. Simeon and Levi were to be scattered in Israel for their cruelty at Shechem. William MacDonald notes that this came true in two ways: Simeon was largely absorbed into Judah (Joshua 19:1–9), and the Levites received 48 cities spread across the whole land.

The longest blessing goes to Judah.

The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be.
Gen 49:10 · King James Version (1769)

Judah means “praise”, and from this tribe came David and the kings of Jerusalem. Henry sees more here: “Judah should be the royal tribe, the tribe from which Messiah the Prince should come.” The New Geneva Study Bible notes that an ancient Aramaic translation already read the verse as a promise of the Messiah, and the New Testament calls Jesus the Lion of the tribe of Judah (Revelation 5:5).

The other sons receive shorter words. Zebulun would grow rich from trade by sea. Dan, whose name means “judge”, would judge his people, but MacArthur notes that the tribe later became known for idolatry. Gad would live under constant attack, Asher would enjoy rich food, and Naphtali is pictured as a deer let loose. Joseph is a fruitful bough whose strength comes from the Mighty One of Jacob. Benjamin is a wolf, a warlike tribe that later gave Israel King Saul and the church the apostle Paul (Philippians 3:5). The chapter ends with a summary.

All these are the twelve tribes of Israel: and this is it that their father spoke unto them, and blessed them; every one according to his blessing he blessed them.
Gen 49:28 · King James Version (1769)

Joseph’s double portion and the tribe without land

So why do some lists of the tribes include Ephraim and Manasseh, while others have Joseph and Levi? Before his blessing, Jacob had adopted Joseph’s two sons as his own.

And now thy two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, which were born unto thee in the land of Egypt before I came unto thee into Egypt, are mine; as Reuben and Simeon, they shall be mine.

Gen 48:5 · King James Version (1769)

MacArthur explains that Jacob did this out of gratitude for Joseph and his care for the family. Each of the two became a tribe, which gave Joseph the double inheritance of the firstborn.

Levi, on the other hand, received no territory.

But unto the tribe of Levi Moses gave not any inheritance: the LORD God of Israel was their inheritance, as he said unto them.

Josh 13:33 · King James Version (1769)

MacArthur notes that God set the Levites apart for His service: their inheritance was their role before the Lord, and their 48 cities were spread through every tribe’s land so that worship was within reach of all the people. That is why the land was still divided among twelve tribes, with Ephraim and Manasseh in place of Joseph and Levi.

What happened to the tribes

After Solomon the kingdom split. Ten tribes formed the northern kingdom of Israel, while Judah and Benjamin made up the kingdom of Judah. In 722 BC Assyria captured Samaria and deported the people of the north (2 Kings 17:6). This is where the idea of the “lost tribes” comes from. MacArthur, however, notes that the ten northern tribes were never lost completely: people from each of them had joined Judah before and after the Babylonian exile. That is why the New Testament still speaks of all twelve tribes (Acts 26:7; James 1:1), and why Luke can say that the prophetess Anna was from the tribe of Asher (Luke 2:36).

The tribes appear again in Revelation, where 12,000 from each tribe are sealed as God’s servants.

And I heard the number of them which were sealed: and there were sealed a hundred and forty and four thousand of all the tribes of the children of Israel. Of the tribe of Judah were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Reuben were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Gad were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Aser were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Naphtali were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Manasses were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Simeon were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Levi were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Issachar were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Zebulun were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Joseph were sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of Benjamin were sealed twelve thousand.

Rev 7:4–8 · King James Version (1769)

This list is unusual. Dan is missing, and Joseph stands in for Ephraim. Adam Clarke and MacDonald suggest that Dan and Ephraim were left out because they led Israel into idolatry. Commentators differ on who the 144,000 are. MacArthur and MacDonald take them as Jewish believers during the great tribulation. The New Geneva Study Bible sees in the number a symbol of the whole people of God, including believers from the nations.

The story of the twelve tribes shows a God who keeps His promises to a very imperfect family. Reuben’s failure, the violence of Simeon and Levi and Judah’s own sins did not stop God’s plan. Through Judah He sent the promised King, Jesus Christ, and in the new Jerusalem the names of the twelve tribes are written on its gates (Revelation 21:12).